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打了新冠疫苗能减少感染吗? [复制链接]

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发表于 2021-12-14 05:13:45 来自手机 |只看该作者 |倒序浏览 微信分享
疫苗不能完全防止感染,所以你仍需戴口罩,但疫苗能减少80%的感染机会。

According to the UK's Office for National Statistics, the AstraZeneca vaccine is 67 per cent effective against infection with Delta, while the Pfizer jab is 80 per cent effective.

https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/world/452283/how-do-covid-vaccines-change-your-risk-of-infection-and-are-you-less-likely-to-pass-it-on

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沙发
发表于 2021-12-14 05:28:08 |只看该作者 微信分享
打了可以随意进出所有场所。

以后出国也要疫苗护照。。。。嗯。。。。

我不知道你的立场在哪 我就先看看。
上sky看看losers怎么秀下限的

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板凳
发表于 2021-12-14 05:43:30 |只看该作者 微信分享
最近,巴西为疫情失控苦恼不堪。新冠感染率超过76%的巴西城市马瑙斯市此前被认为已经达到群体免疫,然而新冠第二波疫情来势汹汹,连巴西卫生部长帕祖耶洛都在感叹,“始料未及”、“疫情发展得太快了”。

  不过,印度最新的一项调查发现,德里可能实现群体免疫了。1月11日-12日,研究人员在印度德里的11个区28000名居民随机血液抽样中发现,超过60%的居民新冠抗体检测阳性,意味着他们此前感染过新冠病毒,并且康复了,德里或许已群体免疫了。

  当然这是通过感染新冠病毒建立起免疫防护墙,而有的国家则通过接种疫苗建立起新冠防火墙,它就是以色列。

以色列总理在接种疫苗,图片来自社交网络以色列总理在接种疫苗,图片来自社交网络
  从2020年12月19日以色列总理内塔尼亚胡接种全国第一支新冠疫苗起,至今以色列以54.69%的疫苗接种率,迅速成为了全球新冠疫苗接种率最高的国家,并有望成为全球第一个依靠疫苗实现群体免疫的国家。

  2020年初,面对新冠疫情大潮,英国政府曾寄希望于通过群体免疫手段来对抗疫情蔓延。于是“群体免疫”这个概念就进入了普通人的视野,如今它不再是一个陌生的公共卫生专有名词。

  什么是“群体免疫”?

  “群体免疫”是一种对传染病的间接保护形式,当人群通过接种疫苗或者以前感染过该疾病从而获得免疫力时,就会形成一种免疫屏障,保护那些对该疾病没有免疫力的人。

图片来自GAO图片来自GAO
  简单地说,当群体免疫生效时,如果一个群体中A被感染了,而他生活圈内的B、C、D都具备针对这种疾病的免疫力,那么A将疾病传染给没有免疫力的E的可能性就很小,大规模爆发的可能性就更小了。而不存在群体免疫的情况下,群体中A被感染了,他生活圈内的B、C、D将很快被感染,而生活圈外的E或者更多的人也将会被间接地传染,疾病大流行开始。

  如何获得“群体免疫”?

  首先接种疫苗,在感染疾病之前获得对疾病的免疫能力。疫苗会训练我们的免疫系统产生抵抗疾病的蛋白质,称为“抗体”,当我们暴露于某种疾病时,有了疫苗的保护,从而不会使得我们生病。接种疫苗的人会获得保护,免受疾病感染且不会传播病原体,进而打破传播链。接种疫苗的优势在于能够在相对安全的情况下获得对疾病的免疫能力。

  其次感染病原体,并从疾病中康复,从而获得免疫能力。感染病原体一样会训练我们的免疫系统产生“抗体”,但每一次暴露在疾病中时,都可能带来风险,公共卫生政策专家口中描述的新冠致死率虽然并不高,但对于每一个个体来说一旦感染,这种风险都是存在的。

  疫苗接种多少比例,能实现“群体免疫”?

  至于需要多少比例的疫苗接种,才能实现群体免疫?在具有足够免疫力的人群中,群体免疫通过使易感个体与感染宿主之间有效接触的可能性最小化,从而为易感个体提供间接保护。当人群达到群体免疫阈值时,群体免疫将开始生效,持续的传播不会发生,因此爆发将减少。

  为了获得群体免疫而需要免疫的人口比例因病种而异。以麻疹为例,对麻疹的“群体免疫”需要大约95%的人口接种疫苗。由于麻疹不会在接种疫苗的人中间传播,剩下的5%的人将受到保护。但如果采取任由疾病在人群中感染的方式来获得群体免疫的话,意味着需要95%的人感染麻疹,并从中康复。对于脊髓灰质炎来说,这个阈值约为80%。

“群体免疫”模型“群体免疫”模型
  为了诱导新冠实现群体免疫,需要接种疫苗的人口比例目前尚不清楚。在现实世界中,情况通常要复杂得多。流行病学和免疫学因素,如人群结构,人群之间传播动态的变化以及免疫力的减弱,将导致群体免疫力赋予的间接保护程度发生变化。因此,在讨论在人群中建立群体免疫时,必须考虑这些因素。

  控制疫情是否需要“群体免疫”?

  首先需要明确一点的是,世界卫生组织认为,通过让人们接触病毒来达到群体免疫,在科学上是有问题的,也是不道德的。因为这将导致新冠病毒在任何年龄或健康状态的人群中传播,从而导致不必要的感染、后遗症或死亡。

  2020年初,英国政府的决策者和官方卫生顾问最初提出的是群体免疫策略,也就是让病毒在人群间自由传播,以期能有足够的人可以形成自身抵抗力,从而自然遏制或控制病毒传播。

  事实上,采取这样的方式的结果是新冠疫情直接或间接导致的死亡人数激增,英政府后来不得不放弃这种策略,从而采取更加严厉的管制措施。

  在英国疫情控制不住后及时叫停群体免疫时,瑞典政府依然坚持采用不封锁的,民众自觉的手段进行控制,以希望该国能通过感染病毒的手段实现群体免疫。然而,瑞典国内的死亡人数是邻国的数倍,且直至2020年底,群体免疫并未形成,死亡人数居高不下,瑞典国王承认抗疫失败。

  另一个典型案例是巴西亚马逊州首府玛瑙斯,从疫情爆发开始,一直没有得到有效的控制(注:中间感染的病例有大幅下降),6月份的时就已有66%的人感染了,到去年10月,病毒已经感染了76%的民众,然而这个城市依然没有形成群体免疫效应,病毒依然在快速传播,并未出现减缓的迹象。

巴西玛瑙斯的疫情正滑向另一个深渊,图片来自lancet.com巴西玛瑙斯的疫情正滑向另一个深渊,图片来自lancet.com
  这些证据表明通过让民众接触病毒来实现群体免疫是不现实的,且后果严重,这将导致很大一部分人将需要感染该病毒,成千上万的人会死亡。因此,在没有疫苗接种计划的情况下,建立群体免疫不是最终目标,而应该是着重于保护弱势群体的政策。

  接种疫苗来实现群体免疫才是正途

  疫情初期疫苗的开发相对滞后,各国采取的应对方式也不一致,但制约该方式的瓶颈在于疫苗的开发、生产、接种均需要大量时间,并不能在第一时间通过大规模接种疫苗实现群体免疫。

  2020年下半年开始新冠疫苗的开发逐渐进入正轨,越来越多的疫苗被批准上市,使得以接种疫苗为基础的群体免疫成为可能。

  据《耶路撒冷邮报》报道,自2020年12月起,以色列开始大规模接种新冠疫苗,并且以色列已经成为世界上最大规模的新冠疫苗接种国,目前以色列的疫苗接种率已达到了54.69%,上周早些时候,该国四个健康维护组织之一的马卡比医疗保健服务公司发布了其成员进行的疫苗接种运动的第一批结果,该组织还将这些数据与未接种疫苗的对照组进行了比较。

  结果显示在第二针疫苗接种后的7至18天,疫苗的保护率达到了92%,未接种疫苗的人群感染病毒的可能性是接种疫苗的11倍。

  目前,以色列开始对35岁以下的年轻人以每天20万针的速度进行疫苗免疫,以色列有望成为全球第一个依靠疫苗实现群体免疫的国家。

  以色列总理内塔尼亚胡在上周举行的达沃斯会议上也解释了要做“全球群体免疫实验室”的意愿,届时希望能有更多的数据提供给全球作为参考。

关键词 : 新冠疫苗群体免疫新冠肺炎我要反馈
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远处的云近而无形北京
睁眼说瞎话!以色列目前每十万人14日累计1200人感染,排名世界倒数第4。仅2月1日就有560人确诊,这样的群体免疫太可怕了。
2月2日12:17赞6回复
远处的云近而无形:是5600人确诊。
2月2日12:18赞4回复

手机用户2453612687新疆乌鲁木齐
少吹以色列吧,辉瑞疫苗的有效性还需要时间来检验,到底是95%还是29%?打完以后有效性能有多长时间?是半年打一回还是一年打一回?
2月2日11:35赞5回复

UTSHUI江苏南京
他们忽略了,新冠是可以长时间存活于外界,大致在20多天,那么a接触后传播给e的概率依然很大,新冠不适用于群体免疫。
2月2日12:10赞4回复
最新评论

用户1400659680北京
造谣文章,以为我们不会看数据,以色列昨天感染人数比元旦前后还高不少
2月3日15:54赞回复

远处的云近而无形北京
睁眼说瞎话!以色列目前每十万人14日累计1200人感染,排名世界倒数第4。仅2月1日就有560人确诊,这样的群体免疫太可怕了。
2月2日12:17赞6回复
远处的云近而无形:是5600人确诊。
2月2日12:18赞4回复

UTSHUI江苏南京
他们忽略了,新冠是可以长时间存活于外界,大致在20多天,那么a接触后传播给e的概率依然很大,新冠不适用于群体免疫。
2月2日12:10
“党外无党,帝王思想;党内无派,千奇百怪;以党治国,放屁胡说;党化教育,专制余毒。”陈独秀

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地板
发表于 2021-12-14 05:46:11 |只看该作者 微信分享
“Judge me in a year,” said Swedish public health boss, Dr Anders Tegnell, in July 2020.

The Covid-19 crisis was still in its infancy, but the Nordic nation normally lauded for its social safety net had already emerged as a global pandemic pariah.

Its light-touch approach, which kept open schools, workplaces and cafés and encouraged Swedes to make their own decisions about staying home and social distancing, was presented as the antithesis to New Zealand’s hardline elimination strategy.

Lockdowns would not work, said strategy supporter and former Swedish state epidemiologist Johan Giesecke. They only postponed the inevitable cases and deaths. And keeping the virus out indefinitely would be unachievable.

READ MORE:
* When will we reach peak immunity, and what should we do when we get there?
* Covid-19 NZ: Are we speeding towards a 'twindemic'?
* Covid-19 NZ: What the end of the pandemic looks like
* Sweden's Covid-19 plan a disaster waiting to happen or a bold, evidence-based response?

“I think it’s impossible in a Western democracy. You could do it in China, you can’t do it in New Zealand,” he told Radio New Zealand in May 2020.

New Zealand’s experience – and the success of other countries that eliminated Covid-19 – clearly showed lockdowns were both possible and effective.


But 18 months later, Sweden no longer seems such a global outlier.

It currently has lower case and death numbers than its Scandinavian neighbours and its overall pandemic death toll, per million residents, is lower than the United Kingdom’s.

So was the Swedish experiment a stunning success, or a reckless failure?

While other countries were locking down in May 2020, Sweden remained open for business.
ANDERS WIKLUND/TT VIA AP
While other countries were locking down in May 2020, Sweden remained open for business.
What was Sweden’s strategy, again?
Here’s an awkward thing. Giesecke – one of the most public defenders of the Swedish strategy – and Kiwi epidemiologist and architect of New Zealand’s elimination strategy, Michael Baker, are friends.

When Baker did a six-month sabbatical in Stockholm, Giesecke was his host. When Giesecke visited New Zealand, he lectured alongside Baker in Auckland.

“Judge me in a year”, said Sweden's state epidemiologist Anders Tegnell, who has resolutely defended his country’s light-touch Covid strategy.
CLAUDIO BRESCIANI/TT/AP
“Judge me in a year”, said Sweden's state epidemiologist Anders Tegnell, who has resolutely defended his country’s light-touch Covid strategy.
But on Covid containment, their views were poles apart.

Remember herd immunity – the idea that if enough of the population are immune, either from infection or vaccination, the virus will run into so many roadblocks to infection it will eventually die out.

That was the basis of the Swedish strategy. In the early days of the original Wuhan virus strain, scientists estimated if 60-70 per cent of people were immune, that would be enough to achieve herd immunity.

In an April 2020 Good Morning Britain panel moderated by Piers Morgan, in which Baker also appeared, Giesecke made the bold statement that Stockholm would reach herd immunity in mid-May.

That’s where Sweden went wrong, Baker says. Its strategy was based on flawed assumptions.

“The Covid-19 pandemic didn’t behave as expected. Initially, people thought it would behave like influenza. That you’d get a wave of infection that would sweep across the globe, people would get exposed and most would develop immunity and some would die. But most wouldn’t and that would be the end of the pandemic.”

Take New Zealand’s 1918 ‘flu pandemic wave, for example. The wave quickly infected large numbers and killed almost 1 per cent of the population. But in two months, it was gone.

Kiwi public health expert Michael Baker and Swedish epidemiologist Johan Giesecke appeared on Good Morning Britain in April 2020, presenting polar-opposite Covid strategies.
SUPPLIED
Kiwi public health expert Michael Baker and Swedish epidemiologist Johan Giesecke appeared on Good Morning Britain in April 2020, presenting polar-opposite Covid strategies.
But Covid-19 wasn’t like that. And Sweden never hit herd immunity. So more than 15,000 people died as the virus continued to spread.

In that RNZ interview, Giesecke conceded their strategy had failed to protect the old and vulnerable. But he remained convinced that Sweden’s disturbing initial death toll would not look so bad once other countries lifted their lockdowns and let the virus in.

“You’re pushing your cases and your deaths into the future. They are not disappearing.”

He told Good Morning Britain: “I think we should wait a year in comparing deaths in different countries... In the end, I think they will be about the same in each country.”

Morgan asked if he could be wrong. “Everything is a possibility. But it is highly unlikely,” he replied.



How is Sweden doing now?
Giesecke was partly right.

East Anglia University professor of health protection Paul Hunter faced off against Tegnell in an April 2020 debate, defending lockdowns.

But he notes Sweden currently has lower case numbers than its Scandinavian neighbours, despite slightly lower vaccination rates and more relaxed control measures.

“Sweden is in a good position now and that will be down to high population levels of immunity due to vaccine, but more importantly – relative to its neighbours – high levels of prior infection.”

Some studies suggest immunity gained from infection is more effective than vaccination at preventing re-infection, so having had lots of cases should make Sweden more resilient to outbreaks.


But that immunity came at a high price, Hunter says.

“You could say that Sweden bought its current good place by allowing very many more of its people to die last year. About seven times as many Swedes died as Norwegians per head of population and three times as many as the Danish. I don’t think that is a record that Sweden can be remotely proud of.”

Clearly, vaccination has changed everything. Had vaccines not been effective, or not been developed at breakneck speed, the different approaches might have come out in the wash.

But as it was, lockdown countries loosened restrictions into a very different environment – one in which most people were protected by vaccination. Even way back in May 2020, Giesecke conceded that New Zealand’s strategy could be the best option if it could keep the virus out until vaccines became available.


Melbourne-based Kiwi epidemiology professor Tony Blakely says with hindsight, Sweden did get some benefit by letting the virus spread when the easier-to-control original strain was dominant.

But even if he’d known last year that 2021 would deliver the doubly-infectious Delta variant, he would still have opted for an elimination strategy.

Blakely’s modelling of the health and economic impacts of elimination, tight suppression and loose suppression (the Swedish approach) found elimination came out tops.

“We definitely want to have done elimination till we got vaccinated, so it’s easier to do, but it does mean that we have to go through our bumpy stuff now.”


What we can learn from Sweden, though, is that as long as you have people who refuse to be vaccinated, you will need natural infection to plug the immunity gaps, Blakely says.

“At some stage we need to really learn to live with this virus. Not look at it from across the dancefloor, but actually go and dance with the damn thing... They probably let the virus run a bit too much initially, but in a year’s time or two years’ time, we may actually decide that the Swedish approach wasn’t a bad one.”

Baker says Sweden’s strategy is now fairly mainstream, but vaccination changes the maths.

“We are seeing all high-income countries gradually converging on a similar approach, which is essentially highly vaccinated, with some social and public health measures retained.

“But in year two you have got vaccines, so it’s quite a different situation. With or without a more infectious variant, the outcomes are just completely different.”

Full coverage
About
But here’s a confounding statistic – Britain’s cumulative death toll is 2145 per million, while Sweden’s is 1494 per million.

Britain started out with a Sweden-style herd immunity strategy, but changed tack after an Imperial College report predicted that it could result in 510,000 deaths, sparking panic and outrage.

That eroded trust in the government, Baker says.

“Because the UK flip-flopped on its strategy, they did get much worse outcomes, I think.”

How does Hunter explain Britain’s higher death toll?

“You cannot compare Sweden with the UK – entirely different country, different lifestyle, different demographics and different economic inequality, all of which will have a big impact on mortality from any disease.”


Is it even useful to compare countries?
We’ve seen it time and again throughout the pandemic – Ireland is great; Ireland is having a ‘mare; Be like Singapore; Singapore is swamped. So is it meaningless to compare countries?

Blakely wouldn’t go that far, but does advise caution. There are two problems – the first is Hunter’s point, that two countries can have very different characteristics, which affect how the pandemic plays out.

Sweden, for example, has low population density and one of the world’s highest proportions of people living alone. Given Delta tends to infect everyone in a household, that could have a huge impact.

Research found Sweden could have halved its deaths by adopting a similar approach to Britain.
SCOTT HEPPELL/AP
Research found Sweden could have halved its deaths by adopting a similar approach to Britain.
An August 2021 comparison of different countries’ approaches to the first pandemic wave estimated death rates in Britain would have doubled had they adopted the Swedish policy, while Swedish deaths would have more than halved if they’d used the British or Danish strategies.

The second problem is that the outcome of outbreaks can turn on the smallest things, including whether the virus reaches the areas where it can spread quickly, Blakely says. In Melbourne, that was aged care. In Singapore, it was migrant worker dorms. In New Zealand, it was gangs and marginalised communities.

“The vast majority of the time, what I did four weeks ago at 3.10 in the afternoon has no consequence on humanity. But if I happen to have gone into a rest home and kicked it off, then that one action of mine has a major impact.

“Cross-national comparisons are useful, but people have placed too much reliance on them, because they think that if exactly what happened in Sweden happened in New Zealand, then the outcome would be exactly the same. Well, you can't get exactly the same circumstances, and you've also got things like seasonality, you've got different social structures between places. So things can play out differently.”

The success of a strategy can turn on small things, such as the virus getting into migrant worker dorms in Singapore.
GETTY IMAGES
The success of a strategy can turn on small things, such as the virus getting into migrant worker dorms in Singapore.
As a predictive tool, country comparisons need to sit alongside modelling and theory, Blakely says.

“What happens in the real world in Sweden is essentially like just one run of a time machine in a model that does it thousands of times, to see what could have happened.”

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Baker says comparing countries is useful, but cautions against getting too hung up on any one measure. Cumulative deaths only tell part of the story. Measuring years of life lost is better, as it takes into account age at death.

Research analysing life expectancy changes in 37 countries put Sweden in the middle of the pack, with a 0.75 year loss, well behind the two-year losses of Russia and the United States. In Taiwan and New Zealand life expectancy actually increased, because lockdowns also kept out other fatal illnesses.

When Sweden did increase restrictions, they sparked freedom protests.
JONAS GRATZER/GETTY IMAGES
When Sweden did increase restrictions, they sparked freedom protests.
But you have to also consider the economic and human rights impacts of restricting people’s freedoms, Baker says. So far, elimination has performed best on all those measures, but that might not have been a feasible option for countries with porous borders.

“What measures would you say would define success, overall? I think that will be quite a big discussion topic... In the end, it’s partly about how societies value the choices these governments are making. And inevitably, there are quite complex tradeoffs.”

Giesecke declined an interview request for this story. But he is not yet about to admit he was wrong.

“Far too early to evaluate and compare. Lead tables still changing by the week. The pandemic is still on,” he says.
“党外无党,帝王思想;党内无派,千奇百怪;以党治国,放屁胡说;党化教育,专制余毒。”陈独秀

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发表于 2021-12-14 06:08:35 来自手机 |只看该作者 微信分享
261874939 发表于 2021-12-14 05:28
打了可以随意进出所有场所。

以后出国也要疫苗护照。。。。嗯。。。。

凡事都有两面,你自己去下结论。
“党外无党,帝王思想;党内无派,千奇百怪;以党治国,放屁胡说;党化教育,专制余毒。”陈独秀

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发表于 2021-12-14 09:54:54 |只看该作者 微信分享
covid跟印度恆河水相比還是有點弱

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发表于 2021-12-14 18:11:21 |只看该作者 微信分享
本帖最后由 paulwood 于 2021-12-14 18:15 编辑
variable 发表于 2021-12-14 09:54
covid跟印度恆河水相比還是有點弱
世界上“最脏”的5条河,居然有一条在中国

恒河,印度的母亲河,但是恒河的水是非常脏的,里面有十万的大肠杆菌,正常情况下500才是最安全,但是恒河的水却有这么多,而且印度人如果有的家畜死后,就会直接扔进去,导致恒河的水质腐烂,发臭,甚至还有膨胀起来的尸体在上面漂浮着等等。在2007年,恒河被世界权威机构评选为全球五条污染最严重的河流,大肠杆菌超标100多倍。虽然这是印度圣河,但印度人一样会把垃圾往河里扔,还会往里边排泄各种污水。因为这样他们觉得可以在来世有好运。即使这样,当地人还是直接饮用恒河里面的水,用恒河里面的水洗衣做饭,即使恒河上面漂着很多垃圾,让人不忍直视,印度当地人依然不为所动。所以说恒河是世界上最脏的河流,一点都不为过。



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泰晤士河,是英国的母亲河,虽然这条河长度不是很大,但是流经的地方皆是英国文化最繁荣最精华的地方,可以说泰晤士河哺育了灿烂的英格尔闻名,即使这样,这条河一直有脏臭的环境闻名,原因是工业革命时期大量人口涌入伦敦,居民生活用水和工厂废水直接流入河中,使得泰晤士河水质下降,尤其是到了夏天气温升高后臭气熏人,混合工业废水,造成伦敦长时间的空气污染和霍乱等流行病的爆发,鉴于此情况,英国政府从60年代开始决心治理,不仅建了几百座污水处理工厂及延长城市下水道,还通过立法规定企业自己处理工业废水,排污不达标的会遭到罚款甚至停业处理,就这样经过几十年的严格治理,虽然现在泰晤士河的洁净程度已经有了大幅提升,但脏乱程度依然在世界上排名靠前。



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萨尔诺河,被古老的罗马人称为萨尔努斯,是整个欧洲污染最严重的河流,萨尔诺河的发源地源于沙诺山,沿途穿过了很多的美景,这条河流的大部分功能是用来捕鱼或者是运输货物,但其中大部分的河段已经遭到了工业化的污染,还有一些农药残留,工业和农业所产生的垃圾全部倒入了萨尔诺河中,当河流进入不勒斯湾时,又会污染其他的海洋,可谓是影响最大的一条河。



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布里甘加河,是孟加拉国最重要的河流之一,这条河流是17世纪以来一直从事贸易的重要场所,也是当地居民的饮用水之一,但是如今这条河已经变成了极度污染的河流,受到工业和生活老家的污染,已经变得脏乱不堪,据统计,仅达卡地区每天就排放多达4500多吨的固体废物进入河中,尽管政府也曾作出措施进行整改,但是结果并不理想。



大图模式




黄河,中国的第一条大河,也是我们的母亲河,但是要说黄河,很多人都表示是不是搞错了,其实每次从黄河边经过,游客都能发现河水很浑浊,甚至有点像泥浆水,但是黄河的脏并不是外界因素的影响,而是黄河两岸的环境有关系,因为位于北方,风沙较大,且有时候会发生沙尘暴天气,所以这些沙子就被吹进了黄河



恒河源于喜马拉雅山南麓,海拔3150米处,流到帕吉勒提河和阿勒格嫩达河汇合处德沃普拉耶格,海拔降至300米,以后称为恒河。在印度文化及神话中,认为帕吉勒提河为真正的源头,但阿勒格嫩达河长度较长。阿勒格嫩达河的河源来自楠达德维山、卡密特山等山脉融雪;帕吉勒提河源于海拔3,892米的根戈德里冰川。恒河流至安拉阿巴德,海拔降至120米,安拉阿巴德以上为上游,下至西孟加拉邦段为中游,以下为下游。

虽然恒河河源包括许多小溪流,其中最长的六条河流及五个汇流点为圣地,六条河流分别为阿勒格嫩达河、道里根加河、南达肯尼河、品达尔河、曼达基尼河及帕吉勒提河。而五个汇流点合称潘奇普拉耶格(Panch Prayag,意即“五个汇流点”),皆位于阿勒格嫩达河上。由上游往下游分别为该河与道里根加河汇流的毗湿奴普拉耶格、与南达肯尼河汇流的南德普拉耶格、与品达尔河汇流的卡尔恩普拉耶格、与曼达基尼河汇流的鲁德拉普拉耶格以及与帕吉勒提河汇流的德沃普拉耶格。[19]

在流经喜马拉雅山区峡谷约250公里的河段后[21],于瑞诗凯诗结束峡谷河段,在赫尔德瓦尔附近进入恒河平原[19]。在赫尔德瓦尔建有水坝将部分河水导入恒河运河,在赫尔德瓦尔上游的河段大致向西南流,其下游则为向东南流。

恒河接着流经约800公里的曲折河段,沿岸有千万人口城市2座。拉姆根加河在此河段汇入,注入恒河的平均流量为每秒500立方米[22]。亚穆纳河于阿拉哈巴德附近与恒河汇流,在印度教中,该地也是神圣的汇流点。此汇流点亚穆纳河的流量较恒河为大,流量为每秒2,950立方米[22],约占汇流后总流量的58.5%[23]。

恒河上游水源主要来自3~5月喜马拉雅山冰雪融化,中、下游则来自6~9月的季风降雨。冬季为枯水期,5月初开始上涨,8~9月升至最高,水位高约1O米。与布拉马普特拉河一起,河口流量平均为3.4万立方米/秒。
“党外无党,帝王思想;党内无派,千奇百怪;以党治国,放屁胡说;党化教育,专制余毒。”陈独秀

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8#分享本帖地址
发表于 2021-12-15 22:52:08 |只看该作者 微信分享
今天去了很多个地方,都没有人盯着我要疫苗护照,也没有人监督我扫码行踪。。。。大街上的哪个繁荣啊,餐厅的那个人也不少。。。
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